Kingdom : Animalia, Phylum : Chordata, Class : Reptilia, Order : Crocodylia, Family : Crocodylidae, Genus : Crocodylus, Species : palustris

This species is found in India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal and possibly, in Bangladesh, its range extends westwards into eastern Iran. The species has become locally extinct over large parts of its range, with viable populations only occurring in Protected Areas (Santiapillai and Silva, 2001). India and Sri Lanka retain the major populations. In India, it is reported to be present in 15 of India's states including much of the Ganga River drainage. Significant populations occur in middle Ganga (Bihar and Jharkand), Chambal River (Rajastan and Madhya Pradesh) and in Gujarat.

The Mugger crocodile is a medium to large crocodilian species; an adult male may reach up to 4.5 meters (18 ft) in length and weigh 450 kg (1000 lbs). It has a distinctive aspect, and is the most alligator like of all crocodile species. While juvenile’s generally have a light tan colouring with some black cross-banding on the body and tail, adult specimens are generally gray to brown. The Mugger is a hole-nesting species, with egg-laying taking place during the annual dry season. Females become sexually mature at approximately 1.8-2 m and lay 25-30 eggs (Whitaker and Whitaker, 1989). Nests are located in a wide variety of habitats and females have even been known to nest at the opening of, or inside, their burrow. In captivity, some Muggers are known to lay two clutches in a single year (Whitaker and Whitaker, 1984), but this has not been observed in the wild. Incubation is relatively short, typically lasting 55-75 days (Whitaker, 1987). Muggers are opportunistic predators and use all available resources as food. But considering existing resources, it prefers fish. Juveniles take crustaceans, insects and small fish generally. Adult muggers eat fish, amphibians, reptiles (mainly snakes and possibly turtles), birds and mammals (e.g monkeys). Large adults have been known to take deer and buffalo on occasions.

1. Habitat destruction due to agricultural and industrial expansion. 2. Entanglement and drowning in fishing equipment. 3. Egg predation by humans and illegal poaching for skin and meat and the use of body parts in medicine. 4. Increasing incidents of conflict with humans due to encroachment by humans into the species' natural habitats.

Kingdom : Animalia, Phylum : Chordata, Class : Reptilia, Order : Crocodylia, Family : Crocodylidae, Genus : Crocodylus, Species : porosus

Apart from the eastern coast of India, the saltwater crocodile is extremely rare on the Indian subcontinent (de Vos, 1984). The saltwater crocodile is also found in Bangladesh. A large population is present within the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary of Odisha while smaller populations occur throughout the Sundarbans. Populations are also present within the mangrove forests and other coastal areas of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India. Saltwater crocodiles were once present throughout most of the island of Sri Lanka.

The saltwater crocodile is the largest of all crocodilians, and the largest reptile in the world. The species has a relatively large head, with a pair of ridges that run from the eye along the centre of the snout. Adults are generally dark in colour, with lighter tan or grey areas, and dark bands and stripes on the lower flanks. The underside is creamy yellow to white, becoming greyer along the tail. The juvenile is usually pale tan, with black stripes and spots on the body and tail, which gradually fade with age, although never disappear entirely. Female saltwater crocodiles are smaller in size than their male counterparts, normally reaching a maximum length of 2.5 to 3 m. With its long, powerful tail, webbed hind feet, and long, powerful jaws, the saltwater crocodile is a superbly adapted aquatic predator. As in all crocodilians, the eyes, ears and nostrils are located on top of the head, allowing the crocodile to remain almost totally submerged when lying in water, helping to conceal it from potential prey, while a special valve at the back of the throat allows the mouth to be opened underwater without water entering the throat. The saltwater crocodile is considered to be more aquatic than most crocodilians, and is less heavily armored along the back and neck. Saltwater crocodiles have a variety of prey. Juveniles are restricted to small insects, amphibians, reptiles, crustaceans, and small fish. Adults feed on crabs, turtles, snakes, birds, buffalo, wild boar, and monkeys. Saltwater crocodiles hide in the water exposing only their eyes and nose. They lunge at prey, often killing it with a single snap of the jaws, then drag the prey under water where it is more easily consumed.

1. Habitat loss and habitat alterations. 2. Illegal hunting for its meat and eggs, as well as for its commercially valuable skin. 3. Negative attitude towards the species make conservation measures difficult to implement.

Gharials were once widely distributed in the large rivers that flow in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. These included the Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and the Mahanadi-Brahmani-Baitrani river systems of India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan. They are also thought to have been found in the Irrawady River of Myanmar. Today, their major population occur in three tributaries of the Ganga River: the Chambal and the Girwa Rivers in India and the Rapti-Naryani River in Nepal. The Gharial reserves of India are located in three States – Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

Among the largest crocodilians, the Gharial can grow to 7m in length and has a thick skin covered with smooth epidermal scales that do not overlap. The snout of the gharial is uniquely the thinnest and most elongated among all the crocodilians. In addition, the adult males sport a large bulb at the tip of their snout, called the 'ghara'. It is also the most aquatic of all crocodilians for it never moves far from the water. Females lay their eggs in steep, sandy river banks (Hussain, 1999). Gharials reside exclusively in river habitats with deep, clear, fast-flowing waters and steep, sandy banks. Adult gharials prefer still, deep pools, formed at sharp river-bends and river confluences and use sandy banks for basking and breeding. Young gharials are found in much shallower, rapid flowing stretches in the water. Unlike other crocodiles, the gharials feed on warm-blooded species and even the largest gharial adults feed exclusively on fish, which they catch between the pointed interlocking teeth of their long jaws. The young gharials prey primarily on small invertebrates such as insects, larvae and also small frogs. The mature adults feed almost solely on fish. The gharial’s characteristic long narrow snout has very little resistance to water, allowing swiping motions to snap up fish in their mouth. The gharial's numerous needle-like teeth are perfect for holding on to struggling, slippery fish. Although primarily fish eaters, some individuals have been known to scavenge dead animals. Although gharials are not man-eaters, they have been given this reputation for sometime primarily due to myths. Despite its immense size, its jaws make it physically incapable of devouring any large mammal, including a human being. The life span of the Gharial is not exactly known, however, it is thought to be around the same span as other reptiles, 50 – 60 years in the wild. Gharials appear threatening to the average swimmer or fisherman as they have a similar appearance to crocodiles.

1. Alteration of habitat - Throughout the present range of the Gharial, the rivers have been dammed, diverted for irrigation and other purposes leading to seasonal drying of once perennial rivers. 2. Depletion of prey base due to increased intensity of fishing and use of gill nets is rapidly killing many of adults as well as subadults. 3. During the dry months, when the water level of the river is down, planting gourd crops and herding livestock for drinking and grazing on the sand banks and river edges has become prevalent all along the Chambal River, which results in destruction of the habitat. 4. Harvesting of eggs and poaching for the use of it’s body parts as medicines has been traditional and is still reported from Nepal and, occasionally, in India.

The Red-crowned roofed turtle is native to India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Historically, the species was widespread in the Ganga River, both in India and Bangladesh. It also occurs in the Brahmaputra basin. Currently in India, the National Chambal River Gharial Sanctuary is the only area with substantial population of the species, but even this Protected Area and habitat are under threat (Dijk, 2010).

Red-crowned roofed turtle’s shell can be as long as 56 cm and can weight upto 25 kg. In comparison to their female counterparts, the males are shorter and reach only half their length. Its head is moderate in size and has an obtuse and slightly prominent snout. The carapace of the species is strongly keeled and the plastron is angulated laterally in the young ones. It is a freshwater turtle species, and found in deep flowing rivers with terrestrial nesting sites.Diet of the species consists exclusively of water plants. Adult females lay 11 to 30 eggs in March and April.

1. Drowning by illegal fishing nets. 2. Poaching and illegal trade. 3. Loss or degradation of habitat due to pollution and large scale development activities like water extraction for human consumption and irrigation and iregular flow from the upstream dams and reservoirs. 4. Sand mining and growing of seasonal crops along Ganga River are majorly affecting the sandbars along the river that are used by the species for nesting.

The River terrapin is found in India and Bangladesh (Sundarbans), Myanmar, Malaysia (peninsular), Indonesia (Sumatra), Thailand, and Cambodia (Stuart et al., 2001). It is regionally extinct in Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.

The species has an upturned snout. Carapace is smooth and grey or black, while plastron is yellow to whitish. Front feet are broad and webbed with only four claws (other turtles have five). It has white eyes (Stuart et al., 2001). Females and juveniles are olive grey in color with grey to brown eyes. Males are darker, turning completely black during the breeding season with yellow or white eyes. Males have longer and thicker tails but are somewhat smaller in size. It lives in coastal mangrove estuaries and creeks, but ventures far upstream during the breeding season. An omnivore, it feeds on waterside plants and small animals such as clams (Stuart et al., 2001). Females nest in sandbars and banks far upstream from the normal estuarine habitat during the breeding season, December to March.

1. Hunting and harvesting of eggs 2. Pollution and loss of habitat including nesting beaches, mangrove forest and other food sources. 3. Incidental drowning by getting trapped in fishing nets and traps, accidental death resulting from power boats. 4. Destructive fishing practices, siltation and sedimentation due to watershed activities such as logging.

The Indian narrow-headed softshell turtle is widespread in South Asia and can be found in the Indus, Ganga, Godavari, Coleroon, Mahanadi and Padma rivers in the Indian subcontinent. Its distribution in India is localized and patchy but extensive, which is possibly the result of its highly specialized requirement for habitat. With few published records from the Brahmaputra drainage, some recent guides have also listed this species from Brahmaputra and its tributaries. It has also been recorded from states of West Bengal, Shillong, Meghalaya and Goa. Presence in West Bengal bridges the distributional gap between eastern and western records of the Ganga River.

Chitra indica’s shell is widely oval and flattened. The species has a short fleshy proboscis. The skull is long and narrow while the nostrils and orbit are situated close to the tip. The carapace is dull olive or bluish-gray in color and has a complicated pattern of wavy reticulations. The neck and the outer surfaces of the forelimbs are also similarly coloured. From the nape of the neck to the anterior part of the carapace a “V” shaped marking is present. The juveniles have several black elongated markings on the carapace. They have cream or pale pink plastron. In comparison to the females, the adult males have comparatively longer tails and thicker bases. Optimal habitat is moderate to large rivers with low turbidity and sandy bottoms. It breeds during the monsoon in central India alone and during the dry seasons in rest of its distribution. At a time, female can lay about 65-193 eggs. It is believed to be an ambush feeder and spend most of its time concealed below the sand, with only the tip of the snout exposed.

Shell length of females can reach up to 48 cm while for males it is only 26 cm. They are found in moderate to large rivers and nest on sand banks. Their peak nesting season is March and April. Males are omnivorous while the diet of females is unknown.

Distribution map of Indian Softshell Turtle (Source: Map data 2016 Google, ORION-ME, SK planet, ZENRIN) Indian softshell turtle’s distribution is restricted to the Ganges, Indus, and Mahanadi river systems in Northen India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Southern Nepal.

Indian softshell turtle with its prominent, tube-like snout and incredibly flattened shell, is a very peculiar-looking freshwater reptile. These odd features make this turtle so superbly adapted to its riverine habitat, with its long neck and snorkel-like snout allowing it to extend its nose out of the water to breathe, and its compressed shell creating a stream-lined silhouette that makes it a brilliant and fast swimmer (Vitt and Caldwell, 2009). The Indian softshelled turtle has a round to oval, smooth upper shell (carapace), which is olive or green in colour with a yellow border. The limbs are also green, while the shell on the underside of the turtle’s body is grey to cream. It has a broad head, with several black stripes running from the centre towards the sides (Ernst, 1997). This large softshell inhabits deep rivers, streams, and large canals, lakes and ponds with mud and sand bottoms. It seems to prefer turbid water. Indian softshell turtle is omnivorous, eating not only mollusks, insects, fish, amphibians, waterfowl and carrion, but aquatic plants as well (Minton, 1966).

1. Reduction of fish stock, as a result of overfishing. 2. Commercial exploitation due to professional fishing and meat consumption. 3. Habitat loss due to the pollution, closure of canals, introduction of dams, tidal barrages, channelization, flood plain drainage and patrial threats are the expansion of agriculture.

This species is confined to India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. It is widespread in the northern and central parts of the Indian subcontinent.

The Indian peacock softshell turtle has a large head, downturned snout with low and oval carapace of dark olive green to nearly black, sometimes with a yellow rim. The head and limbs are olive green; the forehead has dark reticulations and large yellow or orange patches or spots, especially behind the eyes and across the snout, that are larger than those in its sister species. Males possess relatively longer and thicker tails than females, with the cloaca situated close to the tail-tip. Indian peacock softshell turtle is found in rivers, streams, lakes and ponds with mud or sand bottoms. It is omnivorous, juveniles observed feeding on mosquito larvae and fish, while adults consume snails, earthworms, prawns, fish, frogs, carrion, and vegetation. Animals maintained in captivity are known to eat rice and palm sugar sweetmeats.

1. The species is heavily exploited for its meat and calipee (the outer cartilaginous rim of the shell). 2. Threats in the River Ganga to the species are those generic for all large river turtles, including reduction of fish stock, as a result of overfishing, pollution, increase in river traffic, and sand-mining, among others.

The species is found in north and north-eastern Indian subcontinent primarily in Inida, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh. The species is found in the Indus and Ganga river drainage, from Pakistan to Bangladesh and also in northeast India. It is also reported to be found in Gomti and Girwa rivers in Uttar Pradesh, Aravalli foothills and Gandak Dam in Bihar.

As the name suggests, black spotted turtles are black in color with yellowish streaks or spots and wedge-shaped marks. Their head is black with yellow spots and is extremely large, short-snouted. The neck is greyish and has white spots. The skin at the backside of the forehead of this species is divided into shields. The carapace is convex and is strongly arched with sloping slides. The shell has three prominent and interrupted keels. It is a medium sized turtle with carapace length of 40.5 cm. The females are slightly larger than the males. However, the males have a thicker tail and concave plastra. The black spotted turtles are freshwater turtles found in lentic water bodies. They are mainly carnivorous and feed on snails and insect larvae, however, vegetative material has also been found in some of the digestive tracts.

1. The species is subjected to commercial exploitation for meat consumption. 2. Habitat loss due to land fillings and conversion of the lentic water bodies into agricultural land such as rice fields and for human settlements. 3. The species has also entered the pet markets in India and other countries such as the U.S., Western Europe and more recently in Southeast Asia. For this, it is being illegally traded at the international borders.

The species is native to India, Nepal and Bangladesh, with three subspecies recorded from the region viz., P. t. tentoria, P. t. circumdata and P. t. flaviventer. P. t. tentoria occurs in peninsular India and is recorded from Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Madhya Pradesh. P. t. circumdata occurs in the western tributaries of Ganga and the rivers of Gujarat. It is found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. P. t. flaviventer occurs in the northern tributaries of Ganga and is recorded from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam.

The size of the carapace ranges from 20 cm to 26.5 cm depending upon the subspecies. The colour of the turtles also varies according to each subspecies. Subspecies tentoria has an olive or brownish head with a red postocular spot, the carapace is brown in colour with amber or hazel stripe in the first three vertebras and the plastron is yellow with black blotches. The head of subspecies circumdata is olive green with pink postocular spot; the carapace is brownish olive green in colour and with pink pleuro-marginal ring and the plastron is yellow with dark and large blotches. Subspecies flaviventer has a brownish olive colour head with pink patch behind the eyes, the carapace is brownish olive and the first three vertebras have a light-coloured stripe and the plastron is yellow and unpatterned. The males are smaller than the females in size and have longer and thicker tails. The tentoria subspecies have a moderately small and pointed head that is shorter than the orbit. Their carapace is oval and elevated with a distinct vertebral keel that is spiked and the plastron is truncated anteriorly and notched posteriorly. Its habitats include still water pools on river side and slow running water near the river banks. These are active swimmers and are mainly herbivorous.